Month: April 2023

I first encountered Cornell format note taking in a college education class for teaching reading. I used it with my advanced French classes somewhat, but it became one of the cornerstone activities of my social studies classes beginning around 2006.

Cornell notes is a process that encourages developing reading skills, especially for informational text. It provides a study guide for later, although in truth few of my students used that. In my own experience, this method stimulates long-term memory. I believe this is because to complete the task one returns to the information at different levels of abstraction from text to outline to questions and finally to abstract of the whole. The repetition and organized structure of the information promotes that encoding into memory. In addition, it makes a good class activity: upon completion, students can ask each other their questions in a round-robin or pairs format.

The two informal studies below I conducted in 2013 and 2014 to examine the effects of this method on my students’ progress in social studies. Cornell notes became one of two options students had for processing their reading assignments for each unit. The other was summarizing, an equally effective skill. Consistently, about half my students preferred this method.

Originally posted May 2013 and February, 2014.

Innovation has an app now for students to compose Cornell Notes online! And the AI grading assistant can help you score the notes!

May, 2013

A Study of a Reading-Note Taking Task as  Interim Examination Improvement Strategy

“Interim examination” refers to a regularly occurring examination measuring all course content since the  start of the course. They are given at regular intervals as a progress monitoring method. They should be highly  reliable indicators of achievement in the course (such as being highly predictive of performance on a  standardized test) and teachers ought to be able to use the data to make decisions about instruction. A point  worth emphasizing about the interim examination is that it is a test that spirals: each successive examination  tests the content knowledge of the preceding tests and what had been taught since.

Forty-five students in grade seven through nine social studies at Schroon Lake Central School took the  second interim examination in January 2013. Results for some classes were disappointing. An instructional plan  was devised to improve student performance by the April interim examination. The most important aspect of  this plan was a reading & note taking task. Secondarily, there was some increased exposure to domain-specific  vocabulary. 

The effort appears to have been successful. 17% more students passed the third interim examination  from the second. The mean score went up 6%. The probability that the improvement was not due to random  chance or other variables is 83%.

The Note Taking Task 

The note taking task that was intended to boost student performance had two components: notes from  textbook and notes from lecture. Notes had to be taken in Cornell Note Taking format. Cornell format training  has been regularly included in the courses, including training at the start of quarter 3 on using Bloom’s  Taxonomy to create higher level questions on the notes. The note taking task is graded as a “high order task”  (high order tasks account for 65% of a student’s GPA in the course). Cornell Note Taking is a note taking  technique well supported in research¹. Students have two full class periods to begin the text note taking and  then additional working periods when they may opt to do that. They have twelve days to complete the task as  this is the time a topic usually runs. 

Notes from textbook could come from any of three sources, designated as “below”, “at”, or “above” grade level. Grade level difficulty level was determined using Lexile and gauged by the Common Core State  Standards grade level reading expectations. Students self-select for difficulty level in consultation with me. The  amount of reading ranged from 8-12 pages.

Students doing the standard curriculum normally have 1-2 persuasive composition quizzes and 2  expository composition quizzes in each topic. The lecture included some information and media presentations  intended as background or to reinforce key ideas as well as the direct answer to the composition quizzes. Notes  required from lecture were limited to those aspects of the teacher presentation series that answered specific quiz questions. A modified lecture notes task is optional for students who are not sufficiently able to take notes.  They get a copy of the presentation materials and add notes and create questions as for Cornell notes. The  maximum score on this is 76 owing to the reduced workload.

Student Performance on the Note Taking Tasks 

There were two notes tasks in the third quarter. The average score on the notes task was 70, the median  85. Around a quarter failed the notes task each time. Around half of the people who failed the average of the  notes tasks failed interim three. The average score on the notes task was bore a moderately high correlation to  year-to-date GPA in the course (0.70).

Twenty-seven students responded to a survey in which they were asked how well they like the addition  of reading-note taking to their classroom tasks. 75% responded favorably. Prior to this change, assigned reading  tasks were few. Save for grade nine, who had one short reading task per week as homework, students could get  the information they needed to pass the quizzes elsewhere other than text – including studying the quizzes of  students who took the quiz before them. The amount of regular reading in class had become far too limited. My  focus on performance on content knowledge quizzes and on writing took me too far afield of reading for a while.

February, 2014

TOPICAL READING ASSIGNMENT USING CORNELL NOTE TAKING

For each topic of study over the year from February to February 2013-2014, students in social studies grades seven through nine at a small, rural school (N=~50) were assigned to use Cornell note taking for their assigned textbook
chapter readings. The practice was initiated as a response to weak performance of some groups on the 2013 midterm examination.

Students are assigned ten pages of traditional textbook reading associated with the current topic of study. They  may choose from three levels of text: a fourth-grade text, a grade-level text, and an advanced level text set at two  grade levels higher. Providing reading material close to students’ independent reading levels gives them  meaningful access to the information and support for continued reading growth (Allington, 2009). Students have  two 45-minute class periods to work on the assignment and are expected to complete at least five pages per class  period (this is more than double the time it takes the teacher to do the task). This assignment occurs before  teacher lecture and is intended to support student learning by providing the basic groundwork information of the  topic. 

Students are trained in the Cornell note taking format (Paulk, 2014). Using a form provided by the teacher,  students create an informal or formal outline of the most important top two layers of detail from the source text in  their own words (Marzano, 2001). Next, students create questions to go with the information they recorded.  Students are trained in a basic version of Bloom’s Taxonomy for the development of questions and are encouraged  to devise questions and the analysis and evaluation levels in support of long-term memory of the information.  Finally, students are to construct an abstract of each page of notes at the bottom, summarizing the main idea of  the whole page in one or two sentences. Students are graded on the quality of their notes (Figure 2).The task is  due at the end of the topic, usually around two calendar weeks later. Students have additional “working days”  after the teacher lecture series, some of which they may dedicate to completing whatever was not yet done of the  reading task. 

Students are assigned the Cornell note taking method because of the strong supporting research (Figure 1). Research indicates answering questions on text to be least effective for supporting reading comprehension (Graham, 2010). Cornell note taking supports higher level thinking such as application, synthesis, and analysis (Jacobs, 2008). Note taking is one of the “most powerful skills students can cultivate” by providing “students with  tools for identifying and understanding the most important aspects of what they are learning.” (Marzano, 2001). It supports encoding the information for long term recall more effectively than guided notes and questionnaires (Jacobs, 2008). Note taking is known to be an effective strategy “if it entails attention focusing and processing in a  way compatible with the demands of the criterion task.” (Armbruster, 1984) In effective note taking, research  suggests, happens when “students failed to take notes in a manner that elicited sufficiently deep or thorough  processing.” (Armbruster, 1984)

REASONS TO CONSIDER EXAMINING THIS TASK

Informal feedback from students shows the task is generally disliked. The two periods are not maintained strictly  as silent working periods, though distraction is generally minimal. Weaker students are observed to be often off  task. Examination of work accomplished throughout the period indicates some weaker students complete only a  page during the whole time. The completion rate for this task only averages 80% in each topic September-January  2013-2014 grades seven through nine (N=54). Increasingly, this task is coming in late and poorly done with the  mean score at only 72. The lack of sustained attention to task during the class periods allotted for this task likely  decreases the effectiveness of the task, especially memory of the information (Armbruster, 1984).

WHAT DIFFERENCE DOES PERFORMANCE ON THE READING TASK MAKE?

Five students in the sample who had a passing average for the reading tasks assigned in the 2013-2014 school year to date failed an interim examination¹.

Eighteen of fifty-four students in the sample (33%) have a failing (below 65) average for the reading tasks. This  includes scores of zero assigned for incomplete tasks. Half of the students who have a failing average for the  reading tasks failed an interim exam. Five (9%) failed both interim examinations and four (7%) failed one of two  interim examinations. 

Only nine of eighteen students with a failing average on the reading task were able to pass both interim exams. 

“Interim examinations” are ten-week tests of knowledge of course content going back to the start of the school  year.

“Interim examinations” are ten-week tests of knowledge of course content going back to the start of the school  year.

The reading task score measures how well students extracted the “study-worthy” ideas from the source text and  prepared this content for learning. In this sample it was a weak predictor of performance on both the topic final  test (correlation is 0.419) and the interim examination (correlation is 0.334). This stands to reason, since the  measurements are for different things. Final tests and interim examinations are measures of knowledge of  content. 

For the 16^th topic of study in grade eight, the task was set up as a “test”. Students were given 30 minutes to  complete 5 pages. Students who needed more time received it, though a timer was left obvious and the room  remained silent. Students commented that they felt they got a lot done in the more disciplined atmosphere. I am  now assured that the class has completed the requisite reading assignment to understand the upcoming lessons  and that the task was carried out in the most meaningful way possible. 

Since the pandemic, learning from video has become more and more applied in secondary classrooms. In some quarters there were concerns that the demands of learning from video are different than the consumption of video for entertainment that most students engaged in such that student engagement with video lessons would likely be shallow. This shallowing hypothesis has not been consistently supported in the research, however (P. Delgado · Ø. Anmarkrud · V. Avila · L. Altamura · S. M. Chireac · A. Pérez · L. Salmerón).

It is certainly true that students viewing a video that is more than some six minutes long may find their mind wandering, but there are effective methods to teach students that skill set necessary to learn from video and to maximize the benefit.

Effective use of video as an educational tool is enhanced when instructors consider three elements: how to manage cognitive load of the video; how to maximize student engagement with the video; and how to promote active learning from the video.

Brame

1. The Innovation “Etude” Maximizes Active Learning

Innovation’s Etude is an app that maximizes active learning from video. I used this myself extensively with an 11th grade US History class in the 2021-2022 school year. The Etude is a research-supported application that takes a little time to create, but once done is there for your students year after year. Studies show that students who complete video-based learning tasks with students that include interpolated questions performed significantly better on subsequent tests of the material and reported less mind wandering that those who watched passively (Brame).

Teachers using the Etude to create video lessons can opt to add questions in multiple-choice or short answer format. These serve as guiding questions. Providing guiding questions to students promotes active learning by “share[ing] learning objectives with students, thus increasing the germane load of the learning task and reducing the extraneous load by focusing student attention on important elements. (Brame).” Some of my students liked to run down the questions and answer them before watching the video. They would then correct the wrong responses as they watched the video. This is a highly effective method that I encouraged all students to do.

In an Etude, questions do not appear unexpectedly in a dialogue box to interrupt the video like at some websites. Teachers can opt to set a cue point for their questions so that the question becomes highlighted at the right time when the video has given the answer. the video pauses gently while the student responds.

Students engaged in an Etude lesson can control the video playback and are encouraged to re-watch when they need to. Studies show that “[s]tudents who were able to control movement through the video, selecting important sections to review and moving backward when desired, demonstrated better achievement of learning outcomes and greater satisfaction.” (Brame)

The Etudes are self-scoring for multiple-choice and there is an AI grading assistant to help teachers score short answer questions that is easy to train. The scoring app is designed for maximum efficiency. instead of scoring a whole student page at a time, the scoring app prompts the teacher to view students answers one question at a time. that is, you would score all the question ones, then all the questions twos, etc. This increases accuracy and decreases time on task for grading.

2. Summarize the Content

For the busy teacher who may not have time to develop comprehension questions on video lessons, assigning students to summarize the content or take notes from it is an effective practice. Note taking from video lessons has been found to ” help struggling readers overcome their difficulties when learning from text blogs but not from video blogs.” Further, “Studies with undergraduate students […] demonstrated that students instructed to take notes recalled more information from a video lecture than the control group.” (Hashem Ali Issa Almuslamani, Islam A. Nassar & Omar Rabeea Mahdi)

Innovation can help you with this ion two ways. First, Innovation sets up a handy form next to the video for summarizing. Secondly, and more importantly, the Innovation AI grading assistant is easily trained to help you score the summaries.

3. Proctored Viewing

Another strategy for engaging students in video learning that Innovation can help you accomplish is proctored viewing. This application is very simple: it monitors student screen activity during the playing of a video such that it can increase the chances of active engagement. The proctor notes are then submitted when the video ends.

Proctored viewing is less effective that the Etude or having students summarize the content. Proctored viewing probably works best for videos that are six to nine minutes long. Studies found that “the median engagement time for videos less than 6 minutes long was close to 100%–that is, students tended to watch the whole video. As videos lengthened ,however, student engagement dropped, such that the median engagement time with 9- to 12-minutevideos was ∼50%, and the median engagement time with 12- to 40-minute videos was ∼20%. In fact, the maximum median engagement time for a video of any length was 6 minutes. Making videos longer than 6–9 minutes is therefore likely to be wasted effort” (Brame).

[V]ideos […] have a direct and positive effect on increasing the students’ participation in the classroom.

Hashem Ali Issa Almuslamani, Islam A. Nassar & Omar Rabeea Mahdi

When students have submitted their proctor notes, the teacher can quickly view an easy to read summary of each student’s interaction with the video lesson. From there, teachers can discern the level of engagement to some degree. The proctor notes reveal when the student started or paused the video, for how long, and how much of it ran on the screen.

The proctored video app is useful when students are already likely to be engaged with a short video because of interest or prior knowledge and when there is some followup activity in class using the content. Videos are shown to increase class participation, so proctored video assignments can be useful tools to monitor some aspects of student engagement and support some accountability.

Innovation offers three research-based paths to engagement and accountability in video lessons. The apps were designed by working teachers and tested out by very ambitious teenagers who like to try to find software bugs. Why not give Innovation a try?

Sources

Almuslamani, H., Nassar, I., Mahdi O. (2020, May 12). The Effect of Educational Videos on Increasing Student Classroom Participation: Action Research. College of Administrative Sciences, Applied Science University, Kingdom of Bahrain. Retrieved 24 April 2023, from https://www.sciedu.ca/journal/index.php/ijhe/article/view/17480

Brame, C. J. (October 2017). Effective Educational Videos: Principles and Guidelines for Maximizing Student Learning from Video Content. CBE—Life Sciences Education Vol. 15, No. 4. Retrieved 24 April 2023 from https://www.lifescied.org/doi/10.1187/cbe.16-03-0125.

Delgado, P., Anmarkrud, &O., Avila, V., Altamura, L., Chireac, S. M., Pérez, A., & Salmerón, L. (2021, November 30). Learning from text and video blogs: Comprehension effects on secondary school students – education and Information Technologies. SpringerLink. Retrieved April 24, 2023, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10639-021-10819-2

If it’s a conceit of middle age to presume to have some accumulated wisdom or something to share, I apologize and ask your indulgence here. As I transition into retirement, I just can’t resist combing through my long career to try to find something of value.

For this exercise, I would like to imagine myself a guest speaker at a college course for aspiring school administrators. This is the kind of thing I would like to say…

Now, I’ve never been a public school administrator and nor have I ever aspired to such. I appreciate the enormous obstacles to success in this field even if not from personal experience. I have this idea that a person studying to become a school administrator could possibly find something useful in the views of a subordinate.

“Potestas (power) is the ability to do something, while auctoritas (authority) is the capacity to lead, and it comes from the respect one commands by reason of his dignity, his character, his knowledge, and his achievements. True leadership is the combination of both potestas and auctoritas.”

Cicero, De Legibus (On the Laws)

I taught middle and high school social studies. I got a chance in that time to teach about leadership and government in the past; what worked and what did not, maybe with some hypotheses as to why. An explanation from Roman civilization of note differentiated between two leadership powers: potestas and auctoritas. Potestas is the brute force to compel cooperation that societies confer upon their leaders. This is the power to force, physically or though threat of sanction, the cooperation of subordinates. Auctoritas, on the other hand, is the respect subordinates have for the leader that is born of leadership competence and compassion. Inevitably, a leader must get the cooperation of subordinates who may not choose that course of action. Leaders who rely on potestas use threats and sanctions. Leaders who employ auctoritas will get the participation of the unwilling out of respect. Roman philosophers regarded the leader who can lead with auctoritas, who seldom needs to resort to potestas, to be the superior leader. A society under such a leader will prosper and thrive in a more long-term and sustainable way.

Metaphors that work, metaphors that do not.

A metaphor that is apt for the skillful manager, the executive who operates with auctoritas: The Gardener. The gardener does not necessarily know how the tree produces its fruit, and they do not need to, but they do know how much sunlight the tree needs, what kind of solid promotes its growth, what pruning patterns best promote tree health and strong fruit yield. The good admin is a gardener who promotes the growth of their garden by creating the conditions for their success.

“Authority (auctoritas), not coercion (coercitio), creates obedience.”

Livy, Ab Urbe Condita (From the Founding of the City)

Here is a metaphor that is apt for the ineffective administrator, the executive who fails under the modus operandi of auctoritas: The School Bus Driver. The school bus driver is in charge. They are the only adult on the bus, so they are the only real expert on how to safely get to school. Everybody better sit down and behave on this ride! This admin sees themself as the central visionary of the journey; the only legitimate commander. The value of passengers is relative to their obedience, loyalty, and willingness to take the ride wherever the bus driver decides is the best road to take.

“To lead the people, walk behind them.”

Lao Tzu

The reason that the school bus driver is a bad admin is simple: teachers are not analogous to kids on a bus. Kids on a bus are young, innocent, inexperienced, limited by their immaturity. Teachers are highly educated professionals whose knowledge and experience in their subject will surpass that of the admin except for maybe subjects the admin once taught. You can tell when you’re in the school bus driver’s meeting when you realize the supervisor is hearing you but not listening to you.

A metaphor that is apt for the good admin, one who guides by auctoritas and finds success: The Tug-o-war Anchor. The Tug-o-war anchor is the person in the back of the rope. They signal the group to pull together when it is time. They arrange the team members along the rope to pull where they are most suited. The goal is created by the team, not by the leader’s particular vision or prejudices.

The first quality for a commander-in-chief is to be a man of virtue. His authority must be based not only on his power but also on his character.”

Sallust, The Jugurthine War

How can a leader best approach morale problems on their staff?

The proof of the existence of a morale problem is that someone says it; nothing more is needed. If a lot of people say it, then it is a serious problem. If many drop out of committees, it’s not a sign they are lazy, but it’s a sign they no longer have buy-in. Why did that happen?

Potestas leaders eventually have morale problems. There is high turnover is workplaces with weak leaders. Denial or debating whether things are actually all that bad denigrate the listener and trivialize their feelings in ways that have no possible good outcome. That path only earns the contempt of subordinates. An effective leader works to identify the causes of the morale issue and then seeks the counsel of those affected to arrive at reasonable remedies. Leaders accept all morale claims as unquestioningly legitimate and seek remedies as best as possible.

How can a leader best view themself in relation to the educational institution?

Unlike in the private sector where subordinates are often less skilled or knowledgeable than managers, in education the chief executive’s main purpose is to harness the potential of subordinates whose knowledge and expertise is superior to their own in their respective domains. The educational institution that reflects only the vision of the executive officer is culturally impoverished. School leaders understand they do not always know best. They seek regular information from department heads. They accept the direction to which research and regulations point even if it does not jive with their “gut”.

How can a leader enjoy the loyalty and support of subordinates even when they must take decisions they oppose?

Good leaders will have already built a reservoir of goodwill among subordinates. From time to time subordinates will need something extra or unusual: a little time off, an indulgence for a mistake, etc. Such little things are opportunities to build a reservoir of goodwill such that generosity and indulgence from time to time creates an attitude they will fall back on in times when executives must choose an unpopular but principled path. Executives in such cases are also prepared to give sound and convincing reasons for their claims that any reasonable person holding the opposing view would accept as defensible.

A leader’s power is not enough to inspire loyalty and obedience from their subordinates. Instead, a leader must possess personal virtues, such as courage, integrity, and wisdom, that inspire trust and respect in others. This idea reflects the Roman concept of virtus, or the combination of courage, excellence, and morality, as the foundation of leadership

Leaders Must Be Good Communicators

Leaders who are unskilled often communicate poorly. They often fail to convince the listener of an opposing view. They know they have the authority to impose their view and it shows in their manner. Being unresponsive is another communication flaw. Leaving messages unanswered is not a legitimate way to deny a query.

When a leader who relies on potestas attends a meeting to observe the input of subordinates, they arrive with their mind already made up and with a view to performing the show of hearing what subordinates have to say. When a leader who effectively manages with auctoritas arrives at a meeting with subordinates, the plan will be the one the group arrived at by consensus. These effective leaders say things like “once we all agree, we will…”

One should maintain an abiding and unwavering respect for the truth. One should strive to establish a workplace that is stable, predictable, and intellectually prosperous. Subordinates should not come to work wondering what will befall them that day; what aggression they will have to defend against. The ancients knew this well and it is a body of wisdom well worth considering in the present. I am not sure that good leadership can even be taught or studied. It seems very likely to me that some people are simply born with an innate leadership intelligence, a social intelligence, that other people can appreciate and respect.